Chapter II: Discourse and Dependency in a Shifting World (Pennycook, 2017)
Ramji Acharya
Kathmandu University
School of Education, Hattiban
Advisor: Prof. Dr. Tika Ram Poudel
Presenters: Uttam S. Rai, Ramji Acharya
Chapter II: Discourse and Dependency in a Shifting World (Pennycook, 2017)
Abstracts
The chapter "Discourse and Dependency in a Shifting World" from Pennycook's The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language (2017) critically explores the global proliferation of English in post-colonial contexts. It examines the intersections of language, power, and culture through themes such as development aid, modernization, dependency, and cultural imperialism. The imposition of Western educational models and English has been criticized for perpetuating cultural hegemony, undermining local knowledge, and reinforcing center-periphery dependencies, as described in Galtung’s structural theory of imperialism.
Pennycook emphasizes how the global spread of English, framed as neutral or beneficial, conceals underlying power dynamics. The dominance of English in media, education, and communication perpetuates cultural inequalities, marginalizing indigenous languages and epistemologies. This reflects broader colonial strategies where language served as a tool for cultural domination, disrupting self-expression and identity in colonized societies. Post-colonial scholars challenge these hegemonies, advocating for pluralistic approaches like Kachru’s World Englishes, which legitimizes localized English varieties over native-speaker norms. Parallels between cricket and English highlight how colonial impositions can transform into platforms of resistance and cultural adaptation. While English facilitates global communication, it also fosters linguistic homogenization. The chapter concludes by advocating for counter-discourses to deconstruct colonial narratives, promoting equity and celebrating the diverse, evolving identities of English users. Addressing these complexities is essential for fostering more inclusive global relationships and redefining post-colonial legacies.
Introduction
The global proliferation of the English language has been a subject of extensive debate, particularly within post-colonial contexts. This discourse encompasses various dimensions, including development aid, modernization, dependency, imperialism, and cultural hegemony. Alastair Pennycook's seminal work, The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language (2017), provides a critical framework for examining these issues. This article delves into the intricate relationships between language, power, and culture in post-colonial societies, drawing upon Pennycook's insights and other scholarly contributions.
Development Aid and Modernization
In the aftermath of World War II, development aid emerged as a pivotal instrument for promoting modernization in 'underdeveloped' nations. A significant component of this aid was directed towards educational programs, emphasizing cultivating human capital through formal education systems. This approach was predicated on the belief that training and investment in human resources would facilitate the adoption of modern values and behaviors, thereby accelerating societal progress.
However, this paradigm often entailed the imposition of Western educational models and languages, particularly English, on recipient countries. Such practices have been critiqued for perpetuating cultural imperialism and undermining indigenous knowledge systems. Pennycook (2017) argues that the global spread of English through educational initiatives is not merely a neutral conduit for communication but a vehicle for disseminating Western ideologies and cultural norms.
Dependency and Imperialism
The concepts of dependency and imperialism are integral to understanding the dynamics of post-colonial English. Dependency theory posits that the development of metropolitan centers is intrinsically linked to the underdevelopment of peripheral regions. This relationship is characterized by economic exploitation, political subjugation, and cultural domination.
In the realm of education, this dependency manifests through the dominance of Western curricula and languages, leading to the marginalization of local languages and epistemologies. Galtung's (1971) structural theory of imperialism elucidates how economic, political, military, communication, and cultural imperialism emanate from unequal center-periphery relationships. Education systems in post-colonial societies often perpetuate these inequalities by valorizing Western knowledge and linguistic practices over indigenous ones.
Communication networks further exacerbate this dependency. Third World countries frequently rely on industrialized nations for communication technologies, expertise, and infrastructure. This reliance facilitates the commodification of information and reinforces Western cultural hegemony. The proliferation of English-language media contributes to the erosion of local cultures and languages, fostering a homogenized global culture that privileges Western norms.
Culture, Discourse, Differences, and Disjuncture
Culture is a multifaceted construct encompassing various interpretations:
High Culture: A set of superior values embodied in art and literature, often associated with an elite class.
Way of Life: The collective practices and beliefs that define a community.
Imposed Values: Dominant ideologies enforced by those in power.
Sense-Making: The processes through which individuals interpret their experiences.
In post-colonial contexts, colonial powers have historically sought to control subject populations not only through military and political means but also via cultural domination. This strategy involved devaluing indigenous cultures and imposing the colonizer's language and cultural norms. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o (1985) contends that such cultural control is essential for effective economic and political domination, as it shapes a people's self-definition and worldview.
The promotion of English in post-colonial societies exemplifies this cultural imperialism. While governments have advocated for the spread of English, they have often neglected to consider its impact on local cultures and languages. The global dominance of English can lead to the displacement of indigenous languages and the imposition of new cultural frameworks, resulting in a form of linguistic imperialism that perpetuates cultural hegemony.
Discourse of English as an International Language
The global ascendancy of English is underpinned by three predominant discourses:
Natural: Attributing the spread of English to historical colonial imposition and inevitable global forces.
Neutral: Perceiving English as detached from its original cultural contexts, with the emergence of localized varieties.
Beneficial: Viewing English as a language of commerce, science, technology, and international communication.
These discourses often obscure the complexities associated with the global spread of English. The portrayal of English as a neutral or beneficial lingua franca can mask the underlying power dynamics and cultural implications. Pennycook (2017) emphasizes that English is inextricably linked to the social, cultural, economic, and political contexts in which it is used, challenging the notion of its neutrality.
Debate Between Standard and Varieties of English
The proliferation of English has engendered debates regarding linguistic standards. Two primary ideologies have emerged:
Single Standard: Advocating for a uniform standard of English, often aligned with native-speaker norms.
Multiple Standards: Recognizing the legitimacy of diverse English varieties shaped by local contexts.
Kachru (1985) supports the latter perspective, arguing that native speakers no longer hold exclusive authority over English standardization. In contrast, Quirk (1985) contends that a single standard is essential to prevent alienation and disorientation among speakers. This debate reflects broader tensions between linguistic uniformity and diversity, raising questions about whose norms are privileged in defining 'standard' English.
Cricket and English: Colonialism and Resistance
The spread of English and cricket, as colonial legacies, share significant parallels. Cricket, introduced by the British Empire, became a cultural vehicle for instilling imperialist ideologies and reinforcing colonial hierarchies. As Searle (1990) observes, the game was integral to shaping colonized subjects into loyal imitators of British culture, particularly in India and the Caribbean. Cricket was not merely a sport; it embodied the values, traditions, and social norms of the colonial power.
Despite its colonial origins, cricket also became a medium of resistance and identity for the colonized. Indian and Caribbean players used the sport to challenge racism and colonial dominance. Searle (1990) highlights how cricket transformed from an instrument of imperial control into a platform for asserting national pride and independence. This evolution underscores the dynamic interplay between cultural imposition and local adaptation, illustrating how colonized societies can reclaim and repurpose cultural tools imposed upon them.
The cultural transformation of cricket parallels the trajectory of English in post-colonial contexts. Just as cricket has been localized and imbued with new meanings, English has evolved into diverse varieties reflecting the cultural and social realities of its speakers. This phenomenon demonstrates the agency of post-colonial societies in redefining and appropriating colonial legacies.
Culture and Colonialism in International Relationships
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1985) articulates the critical role of culture in colonial domination. Economic and political control, he argues, is incomplete without cultural hegemony. Colonial powers sought to undermine and devalue indigenous cultures while imposing their own languages, values, and worldviews. This dual strategy of destruction and domination was central to maintaining colonial control.
Language played a pivotal role in this process. The imposition of English not only facilitated administrative efficiency but also served as a tool for cultural domination. By replacing indigenous languages with English, colonial powers disrupted local means of self-expression and knowledge transmission. This linguistic hegemony extended beyond the colonial period, influencing education, governance, and international relations in post-colonial societies.
The dominance of English in international discourse continues to reflect these colonial dynamics. As Phillipson (1992) notes, the global spread of English is often accompanied by the imposition of Western cultural and epistemological frameworks. Addressing these issues requires a critical examination of the power structures embedded in language use and the development of counter-discourses that challenge these hegemonic narratives.
Discourse and Dependency in Global Communication
The role of communication in perpetuating dependency and imperialism is a recurring theme in post-colonial studies. Third World countries often rely on industrialized nations for communication technologies, expertise, and infrastructure. This dependence reinforces economic inequalities and cultural hegemony, as Western norms and values dominate global communication networks.
Galtung (1980) highlights the causal link between communication imperialism and cultural imperialism. Western media outlets, such as the BBC World Service, play a significant role in shaping global perceptions and narratives. These outlets often prioritize Western perspectives, marginalizing alternative voices and cultural expressions.
The commodification of information further exacerbates these issues. Communication technologies are treated as commodities rather than public goods, limiting access for marginalized communities. The growth of computer networks and satellite technologies has heightened these inequalities, as access to information becomes increasingly stratified.
Culture, Discourse, and Power
Discourse, as a system of power and knowledge, plays a central role in shaping cultural and social realities. Michel Foucault's concept of discourse highlights how language and knowledge are used to exercise power and control. In post-colonial contexts, discourse is a key mechanism for perpetuating colonial hierarchies and cultural dominance.
Western discourses about culture often impose binary oppositions, such as advanced versus primitive or developed versus underdeveloped. These distinctions reinforce stereotypes and justify interventions by portraying non-Western societies as inferior. Such discourses are not limited to the colonial era but persist in contemporary global relations, influencing development policies, education systems, and international aid programs.
Counter-discourses are essential for challenging these narratives. Post-colonial scholars advocate for the deconstruction of hegemonic discourses and the articulation of alternative perspectives that reflect the diversity and complexity of global cultures. By reclaiming their voices and narratives, post-colonial societies can resist cultural domination and assert their agency.
The Debate on English as an International Language
The status of English as an international language is both a source of opportunity and a site of contestation. Proponents argue that English facilitates global communication, commerce, and scientific collaboration. Critics, however, caution against the cultural and linguistic homogenization that often accompanies its spread.
The debate between standard and varieties of English epitomizes these tensions. Advocates of a single standard emphasize the need for linguistic uniformity to ensure effective communication. However, this approach often privileges native-speaker norms, marginalizing non-native varieties and speakers.
In contrast, the recognition of multiple standards acknowledges the legitimacy of localized forms of English. Kachru’s (1985) model of World Englishes challenges the dominance of native-speaker norms and highlights the diverse ways in which English is used and adapted in different contexts. This pluralistic approach aligns with post-colonial perspectives, emphasizing the agency of speakers in shaping the language.
Conclusion
The discourse surrounding post-colonial English reveals the complex interplay between language, culture, and power in a shifting global landscape. Development aid, education, communication, and cultural policies are all deeply influenced by colonial legacies and contemporary inequalities. Addressing these issues requires a critical examination of the power structures embedded in language use and the development of counter-discourses that challenge hegemonic narratives.
English, as a global language, embodies both the challenges and opportunities of post-colonial relations. While its spread has facilitated communication and collaboration, it has also perpetuated cultural and linguistic inequalities. A nuanced understanding of these dynamics is essential for fostering more equitable and inclusive global relationships.
By examining the cultural politics of English, scholars and practitioners can contribute to a more just and pluralistic world. This endeavor involves not only critiquing the dominance of English but also celebrating the diversity and creativity of its users, who continue to reshape and redefine the language in ways that reflect their unique identities and aspirations.
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